With higher divorce rates, there is a direct correlation between the way we view the roles in a marriage/family and the overall health of said . These may be negotiated by a leader but the followers know the terms of the agreement and are quick to point out any violations. In row 1 (items 1, 2 and 3) high status persons who feel that their status is based on ability engage in self-justified othering where they are validated, and they develop powerful virtual selves. 2014: 185-86) speaks of a negotiated order and mentions bargaining. Their motto, Wilson and Wilson, For the People dominates the airwaves on TV and the internet decrying the greed of insurance companies. 2005 Jun;56 (2):191-213. doi: 10.1111/j.1468-4446.2005.00055.x. And lastly, Joseph P. Kennedy was the son of a successful Irish businessman. Further examples can be seen in the development of trade unions. Oppressive othering penetrates the generalized other of Mead and indicates that people may promote or justify their positions in society by providing looking glass-self messages to others that they are inferior, inept, unworthy or otherwise inferior to themselves. However, Strauss does not go far with this conception of bargaining as it might appear in political action. But again, the social mobility boundary is fought most between row 3 of the vulnerable high-status people, and row 6 of the discriminated against but talented low-status persons. Social networks of kin and association in social mobility settings can occur in different formats according to bonding and bridging capital. And you know that the funeral director will not only do it to repay his debt, but if he does not, the Don will most certainly take a pound of flesh. Recall, the Mafia Don played by Marlon Brando in the opening scene of The Godfather taking care of an Italian fathers wish to revenge the shabby treatment of his daughter by some Anglo-boys. These people are very self-confident and quite connected. He questions George Herbert Meads predication of symbolic interaction as being based on sociation, which is the general consensual pursuit of cooperate social relations. Each one of these families utilized various aspects of generalized exchange in what they perceived as their social mobility prospects. Afterwards, he says that no payment is necessary, but: Someday, and that day may never come, I will call upon you to do a service for me. In other words, if you constantly depend on another person for food, income, entertainment and shelter (e.g., a child to a parent, or a worker to the managers of a company town), while you supply none of these and other values to the other, then your other has a high amount of power over you since they could deny you these values. All too often, the processes of the generalized other are portrayed as supportive othering such as mothers and fathers interacting with their children in the socialization process. However, in tracking the patterns of social interaction to their troubling consequences, we heed the advice of an early interactionist, Blumer (1969), who urged symbolic interactionist researchers . There are two types of exchange that can be applied to symbolic interactionism. Through your interactions with the letters 'dog', you see this as a furry, four-legged canine. Instead Athens prefers to see the pursuit of power as the basic motivating force for human beings and their groups. Consequently, it is also important to focus on the higher status persons who are subject to downward mobility because they will also be highly defensive, resistant and even violent. It is also discussed in a rather ethnomethodological form in Josh Pacewiczs Partisans and Partners (2016), though the gift relationship large resembles these other generalized exchange forms. The daughter complains to her grandmother, who has been an underpaid domestic for many decades to a prominent old and respected family. However, a weak norm of generalized reciprocity (i.e., restricted exchange) will create weaker social bonds. One might say that this looks a bit like Robert Mertons theory of deviance (1938); however, the big difference is that Merton focused on blockages that exist but said little about the motivation and process by which they are accepted or overcome, and nothing about the emotions that they generate. They will develop positive generalized others with the subcultures that they may produce. Fourth, there are two kinds of group-to-group exchange. In one way or another, George convinces his three brothers and one sister to also become personal injury lawyers. Third, the eldest son of a middle-class family, George Wilson, becomes a personal injury lawyer and is quite successful. When people engage in sociation often with generalized exchange they are interacting according to the process of sociation. But when people engage in strategic interaction they are following interaction through power, which may be conscious by tough negotiators or may have been socialized into them through violentization. And further, there are processes in between. How does symbolic interaction theory explain inequality? The first type is restricted exchange that is best characterized by market exchange whereby one gives money for some goods or services. In their fearful position, they intensify their oppressive othering through discrimination with high intensity and emotion. They have deference and may have shame, but they seek to avoid these emotions by building negative subcultures where they are accepted with their deficiencies. Each one of these families utilized various aspects of generalized exchange in what they perceived as their social mobility prospects. 2000; Sandstrom et al. The exchange is usually short (money paid for material objects, knowledge or personal services) and both parties are self-interested. The first type is restricted exchange that is best characterized by market exchange whereby one gives money for some goods or services. These people are very self-confident and quite connected. Ones and the others alternatives are measured by the number of alternatives times their value, which is the value of the alternative times its probability. However, in this book, I find that they can be profitably put together or synthesized. Symbolic Interactionist Theory Revised for Political Sociology Interactional Ritual Chains and Differential Association Power and Inequality in Symbolic Interaction From Generalized Others to Social Networks and Groups to Social Structure and Culture Conclusion Power and Inequality in Symbolic Interaction More recently, Monica Whitman (2021) has shown that a strong norm of reciprocity will have powerful effects leading to social trust and generalized exchange for the betterment of the group. Reading across the tables columns, the first three rows represent higher status persons, and the latter three rows are lower status persons. Symbolic interactionism is a micro-level theory that focuses on the relationships among individuals within a society. Much of this type of exchange is linked to rational action as per Max Webers concepts of rationality. The merit-based elites may protect the less able elites, and the discriminated subordinates with abilities may encourage the deferential people with hope. Instead Athens prefers to see the pursuit of power as the basic motivating force for human beings and their groups. Applying Symbolic Interaction Theory to Everyday Life This approach to studying the social world was outlined by Herbert Blumer in his book Symbolic Interactionism in 1937. Among her kin, she aims to keep the family together for over 50 years with parties with over 60 people. While this more or less goes back to Thomas Hobbes and the war of all against all, we do not have to flip flop on the basic motivations of humans and see that we all are motivated by both love and hate, cooperation or conflict, or caring and violence. [2] Later on, Don Corleone does call in the favor to take care of a dead body using the mans funeral parlor. Communicationthe exchange of meaning through language and symbolsis believed to be the way in which people make sense of their social worlds. Following Goffman and bridging Mead and Athens, there seem to be two modes of behavior: (1) a general form of sociation where people generally intend to get along with each other as friends and associates, and (2) a strategic form of interaction that looks more like bargaining behavior where one has a sense of seeking specific monetary or other gains. Her idea for social mobility is to work herself at the telephone company and maintain kinship and neighborly social relations. Following Goffman and bridging Mead and Athens, there seem to be two modes of behavior: (1) a general form of sociation where people generally intend to get along with each other as friends and associates, and (2) a strategic form of interaction that looks more like bargaining behavior where one has a sense of seeking specific monetary or other gains. More market exchange, often among strangers, is restricted exchange where one expects immediate payback. The symbolic interaction perspective, also called symbolic interactionism, is a major framework of the sociological theory. We will refer to those who operate with more restricted exchange as opportunists in the next chapter on citizen selves. Restricted and generalized exchange relate to how generalized others are constructed. Trust may develop. Her idea for social mobility is to work herself at the telephone company and maintain kinship and neighborly social relations. This section interrogates the concept of power and its weak presence in symbolic interactionist theory, and then goes into the theorys conceptions of inequality. Symbolic interactionism and the concept of power Symbolic interactionism and the concept of power . Therefore structural sources of redefinition are ignored." (Term paper on Symbolic Interaction Theory, 2008). Further examples can be seen in the development of trade unions. Generalized exchange is more community and group interested rather than self-interested. They have deference and may have shame, but they seek to avoid these emotions by building negative subcultures where they are accepted with their deficiencies. After a successful business and political career, he promoted his sons as politicians. Trust may develop. Symbolic interaction has a particular weakness concerning a concept critical to political sociology and that is the concept of power. George Herbert Mead does not say much about power in his social psychological theory, and when encountering the topic, the authoritative symbolic interactionist text by Sandstrom, Lively, Martin and Fine (2014: 177-184) after a very brief review of the concept largely embraces the social exchange theory of Richard Emerson (1962) that sees power as dependency. Recall, the Mafia Don played by Marlon Brando in the opening scene of The Godfather taking care of an Italian fathers wish to revenge the shabby treatment of his daughter by some Anglo-boys. In the bottom half of the table that describes low status, there are also three reactions. Keywords Sexual Harassment Emotional Experience Identity Work Emotional Labor 2017; Sandstrom et al. More market exchange, often among strangers, is restricted exchange where one expects immediate payback. In row 4 (items 10, 11 and 12), people with low rank view their social position due to their lack of ability, and they engage in accepting the other imposed upon them by higher ranking people. In row 1 (items 1, 2 and 3) high status persons who feel that their status is based on ability engage in self-justified othering where they are validated, and they develop powerful virtual selves. While they may have their differences, they show a lot of similarities when comparing certain traits within a certain theory including the economic inequality, deviance and gender as discussed above. In network terms, these processes are more reliant on strong ties than weak ties (Granovetter 1973). Generalized exchange is more community and group interested rather than self-interested. They will develop positive generalized others with the subcultures that they may produce. This generalized exchange does not demand immediate payback and helping one may lead to them helping another so that the initiator of the exchange does not expect immediate payback. Their chances of positive mobility are greater. They have deference and may have shame, but they seek to avoid these emotions by building negative subcultures where they are accepted with their deficiencies. Inequality and Social Mobility in Symbolic Interactionism. The firm of Wilson and Wilson become quite successful, and eventually the younger brothers and two children who become lawyers then expand the business to six other states. However, theories of political sociology cannot assume unrelenting social mobility for everyone since most social mobility is relational. For example, an individual receiving unemployment insurance promises to be ready and able to work, and to search for work and fail in order to receive the benefit. This is presented in table 5.2 along with material from Jonathan Turner and Jan Stets (2004). In a sense, they are saying I want my social mobility back or I dont want others to be rising above me with their own social mobility. On the other hand, those on the bottom may make the claim that upward mobility has no effect on others at the top, but relationally, this is not the case. When people engage in sociation often with generalized exchange they are interacting according to the process of sociation. But when people engage in strategic interaction they are following interaction through power, which may be conscious by tough negotiators or may have been socialized into them through violentization. And further, there are processes in between. More market exchange, often among strangers, is restricted exchange where one expects immediate payback. Relative power is the difference between your dependencies as compared to the other, and the others dependencies on you. Beverly Johnson combined bonding and bridging capital to maintain family solidarity and to advance her husbands career (since the husbands father died early, this limited greater bridging capital) both through the absence of the father and the tendency for widows sociality being restricted (i.e., there is no husband to promote and her lowered income makes the husbands mother a bit downwardly mobile). In a way, symbolic interactionism is a liberating and emancipating force Similarly, powerful groups of people or structure can impose their will upon others with complete disregard for social beliefs. In row 6 (items 16, 17 and 18) lower status persons with perhaps certain abilities and talents that they themselves recognize view their low status as being due to discrimination and bias coming from higher status persons. And the Kennedy example, which of course is well known, shows how promotion can even lead to the Presidency of the United States. He questions George Herbert Mead's predication of symbolic interaction as being based on "sociation," which is the general consensual pursuit of cooperate social relations. One important type of restricted exchange involves an important time dimension (see 2 in Table 5.1). In row 6 (items 16, 17 and 18) lower status persons with perhaps certain abilities and talents that they themselves recognize view their low status as being due to discrimination and bias coming from higher status persons. In a sense, they are saying I want my social mobility back or I dont want others to be rising above me with their own social mobility. On the other hand, those on the bottom may make the claim that upward mobility has no effect on others at the top, but relationally, this is not the case. In row 5 (items 13, 14, and 15) people may be of low rank because of accidents or bad luck. The whole process of oppressive othering is linked to highly charged emotions on the part of both the oppressors and the subordinates. Lexington KY, 40506-0027859.257.8354, Power and Inequality in Symbolic Interaction, Online Graduate Certificate in Diversity and Inclusion, Social Psychology of Citizens and Subjects: Generalized Others and the Pathways to Inequality and Social Structure, Symbolic Interactionist Theory Revised for Political Sociology, Interactional Ritual Chains and Differential Association, From Generalized Others to Social Networks and Groups to Social Structure and Culture. They see four factors as being important in the creation of inequality: oppressive othering, boundary maintenance, emotion management, and subordinate adaptations (Schwalbe et al. They engage in counter-othering which is the angry rejection of the imposed reflected appraisals of high-status people that intend to demean and reject them. The firm of Wilson and Wilson become quite successful, and eventually the younger brothers and two children who become lawyers then expand the business to six other states. Generalized exchange was promoted by Malinowskis Kula Exchange in The Argonauts of the Western Pacific, and by studies of gift exchange with specified shells as the gift. While the women largely stay at home, the male members of this kin group help each other to gain high paying jobs within the same industry as her husband with one becoming quite wealthy. The mother reluctantly buys the dress for the ecstatic daughter, but angrily tells her mother (the daughters grandmother) that the scion has underpaid you for years, and that this is exactly what keeps us in our place.. Social Exchange in Symbolic Interaction with Bonding and Bridging Capital. 2017; Sandstrom et al. Authors Alex Dennis 1 , Peter J Martin Affiliation 1 School of English, Sociology, Politics and Contemporary History, University of Salford, UK. Symbolic interactionism is a micro-level theory that focuses on meanings attached to human interaction, both verbal and non-verbal, and to symbols. However, I want to move Schwalbe et al.s view of inequality further in the direction of social mobility. Michael Schwalbe and five others present a theory of critical interactionism on how inequalities are created in society, and these can also be related to social mobility. 2014: 46-47; Reynolds 1987). Communicationthe exchange of meaning through language and symbolsis believed to be the way in which people make sense of their social worlds. For an auto example, Ford Motor Company has had many Ford family members running the company; however, General Motors has had only one Sloan in the form of Alfred P. Sloan who had no children and his foundation operates on the East Coast. 2017; Sandstrom et al. In another way, a gift may be given to the taker, but the giver extracts a promise of a favor in the future. Generalized exchange looks to the betterment of the group as a whole, while restricted exchange is about the individual gaining for themselves. What Is Symbolic Interactionism? This does not mean that all social mobility in families is tied to generalized exchange. The end result is a more nuanced and extended theory of power in society with elements of motivation at the individual and group level. Social exchange theory and symbolic interactionism are often thought of polar opposites, and in some ways they are. Generalized exchange looks to the betterment of the group as a whole, while restricted exchange is about the individual gaining for themselves. However, this negotiation is rather loose and not involved with a formal assessment of power. . But Athens does point to a critical weakness of symbolic interactionism as he comes up with a contrary view of the good socialization process described by George Herbert Mead, which is the process of violentization thesis. Nonetheless, Athens does present symbolic interaction with an initial approach to power, which this theory sorely needs. Power in Symbolic Interactionism via Social Exchange Theory. We will refer to those who operate with more restricted exchange as opportunists in the next chapter on citizen selves. In it, gifts can be used to benefit the whole community through philanthropy, but they also may serve to create patrimonial relationships. This section interrogates the concept of power and its weak presence in symbolic interactionist theory, and then goes into the theory's conceptions of inequality. The symbolic interaction perspective, also called symbolic interactionism, is a major framework of sociological theory. Gender Inequality, Functionalism and Symbolic Interactionism. Sometimes these exchanges are made more long-term, but they are carefully guarded by contracts assuring each partys interests are protected. Most often, more distant others are in restricted exchange relationships. For instance, Anselm Strauss (1978; Strauss et al. In row 4 (items 10, 11 and 12), people with low rank view their social position due to their lack of ability, and they engage in accepting the other imposed upon them by higher ranking people. A major difference between the two concerns how strategic people can be. Thus, our goal is to present an overview of the territory that symbolic interaction and sociological studies of emotions share and then analyze the most challenging direction for interactionist research: understanding the reproduction of inequality. Thus, social mobility is not just achieving skills by merit, but it is also about self-work or personhood about countering and converting elite processes of oppressive othering with generalized others. They largely do not see their bad luck as deserved but nonetheless it is what it is. They will often engage with higher ranked persons with cooperation and attempts at patronage and opportunism. Schwalbe et al.s (2000) view of blockages goes beyond Merton to state that higher elites impose oppressive othering on low status people through emotion, discrimination, and self-processes of internalization or counter-othering. The grandmother mentions the specific dress that the young girl wants at the most expensive boutique in town, and the scion she works for says, I know the owner of the store; I can talk to her. The grandmother then tells her granddaughter that the dress has been marked down by 70% of the original price so that it is the same price as the department store dress. In it, gifts can be used to benefit the whole community through philanthropy, but they also may serve to create patrimonial relationships. These are examples of generalized exchange through acquaintances rather than family. And the subordinates react to oppressive othering in a number of different ways. Their internalizations are highly manipulative and can often be violent because they are located closest to the boundary between high and low status, and they know it. Rose Kennedy kept the family strongly united with frequent family gatherings (Patterson and Fagen 2020). There are also many examples of people gaining great wealth or political influence through more restricted exchange. Differentiating these relationships gives meaning to positive and negative types of generalized others in the social mobility process. This type of exchange is favored by rational choice proponents and economists who see it as the paramount exchange that exists in markets. [3] Also, similar processes can develop with a tight knit group of friends from high school or college. Her idea for social mobility is to work herself at the telephone company and maintain kinship and neighborly social relations. Group to group generalized exchange can occur also through mutually exclusive groups (item 10) or overlapping groups (item 11). The merit-based high-status persons and the low-skilled degraded low-status persons will most likely stay where they are in the social structureone feeling superior and the other deferential. In row 1 (items 1, 2 and 3) high status persons who feel that their status is based on ability engage in self-justified othering where they are validated, and they develop powerful virtual selves. However, in this book, I find that they can be profitably put together or synthesized. This inequality, is having an impact on the family and it is mostly negative. Our chapter explores the contributions of symbolic interactionism as a theoretical perspective in sociological studies of emotions. These can be seen in birthday parties in a family (group to individual that is closed by family members) or birthday parties at work where the exact people in the group may be constantly changing as employees come and go. However, if a family member ignores his brothers and sisters, he will need to make up for bonding capital with an extensive focus on bridging capital to a higher social class. Symbolic Interactionism is a theoretical framework in sociology that describes how societies are created and maintained through the repeated actions of individuals (Carter and Fuller, 2015). In another way, a gift may be given to the taker, but the giver extracts a promise of a favor in the future. Among her kin, she aims to keep the family together for over 50 years with parties with over 60 people. Collins theory is based on people being unequal in their resources, which links to power resources theory but he is a bit vague about the connection. (2000) provide a more nuanced view of oppressive othering by viewing different attributions with external and internal reactions from generalized others. Generalized exchange is more community and group interested rather than self-interested. Power and Inequality in Symbolic Interaction, Quantitative Initiative for Policy and Social Research (QIPSR), Social Psychology of Citizens and Subjects: Generalized Others and the Pathways to Inequality and Social Structure, Symbolic Interactionist Theory Revised for Political Sociology, Interactional Ritual Chains and Differential Association, From Generalized Others to Social Networks and Groups to Social Structure and Culture. In another way, a gift may be given to the taker, but the giver extracts a promise of a favor in the future. We do not have to trade caring for power, and for the most part, we can see these two forces as being consubstantial in society. A symbolic interactionist who does directly confront symbolic interactionism on questions of power is Lonnie Athens (1992, 1997). The two types of behavior have two different types of exchange. The daughter complains to her grandmother, who has been an underpaid domestic for many decades to a prominent old and respected family. Although the favored Joe Jr. died in World War II, Joseph Kennedys sons John F., Robert and Ted Kennedy had peak political careers. They see four factors as being important in the creation of inequality: oppressive othering, boundary maintenance, emotion management, and subordinate adaptations (Schwalbe et al. 2014: 185-86) speaks of a negotiated order and mentions bargaining. For instance, if the exchange takes place repeatedly over time, norms evolve about the relationship. However, if a family member ignores his brothers and sisters, he will need to make up for bonding capital with an extensive focus on bridging capital to a higher social class. Here are four examples with disguised names except for the last one. Exchange theory then leads to bargaining processes, which will be discussed more fully in chapter 9 on the macro-level. Group to group generalized exchange can occur also through mutually exclusive groups (item 10) or overlapping groups (item 11). These are examples of generalized exchange through acquaintances rather than family. As we have seen with the Trump-base, many of these people state I want my country back and Make America Great again. While one might self-righteously declare them as unjustified, they do not agree, and they are a political force to be reckoned with. Schwalbe et al.s (2000) view of blockages goes beyond Merton to state that higher elites impose oppressive othering on low status people through emotion, discrimination, and self-processes of internalization or counter-othering. In other words, if you constantly depend on another person for food, income, entertainment and shelter (e.g., a child to a parent, or a worker to the managers of a company town), while you supply none of these and other values to the other, then your other has a high amount of power over you since they could deny you these values. Addressing systemic inequalities within the . In a formula this might be: Your Power = 1 / Others dependencies on you, The others power = 1 / Your dependencies on the other, Relative power in = (Your power) (Others power). Thus, social stratification is a result of these individual interactions. Unlike the functionalist and conflict views, it does not try to explain why we have stratification in the first place. In row 2 (items 4, 5 and 6) high ranking people have largely inherited their rank by ascriptive principles and they rely on their traditional positions but may need to engage in defensive othering and internalization, In row 3 (items 7, 8 and 9), some people have high rank due to bias and discrimination and they are quite insecure and very much subject to downward mobility. [2] Second, there are individual to group exchanges whereby a group might give a loan to an individual, and then the group expects payment by a particular date. It is a further question of whether these negotiations or social bargains are involved with restricted or generalized exchange. Given these points, there are clear differences between the structural functionalist, social conflict and symbolic interaction theories. 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